(1) What was the Ptolemaic-Aristotelian view of the universe, and how did Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton undermine it and institute an alternative?
The Ptolemaic-Aristotelian view of the universe held that the earth was at the center of the universe and everything else revolved around it. When Nicolaus Copernicus proposed the heliocentric model, in which the sun was at the center of the solar system, it caused an uproar. While the Catholic church was somewhat supportive of the work, many protestants were claiming that this went against certain pieces of scripture. Even Martin Luther and John Calvin were disagreed and were outspoken about this.
As this field of study grew in popularity, Johannes Kepler observed that satellites actually travel in elliptical orbits with variable speed. Again, this was contrary to popular opinion. Then, while watching Jupiter through an extremely powerful telescope, Galileo Galilei noticed that there are moons orbiting Jupiter. This again implied that earth is not the only body that can have satellites, and combated the idea that if the earth itself was moving, then it would leave the moon behind. Galileo also observed that the moon has craters, which disproved the idea that heavenly bodies are perfectly spherical.
Still, there were a few other common misconceptions about physics that kept the general population from accepting this model. Questions such as “If the earth was moving, wouldn’t we feel it?” and “How do the planets stay in orbit?” still caused problems. When Isaac Newton introduced his three laws and the concept of inertia, the puzzle was just about completed. Previously, there was no understanding of how objects stay in motion even when there weren’t any forces acting upon them. Now, someone with an understanding of physics can look at this question and laugh, but it was a big deal back then.
(2) Recent historians of science have revisited the traditional version of the Scientific Revolution and have disputed the standard claim that religion and science were locked in a titanic struggle. What is some of the evidence these scholars have brought forth?
A common misconception about this era is that the church and the scientists were at war over who’s ideology would persist. “It was reason versus religion,” they may say. However, most historians today would agree that this is false. The Christians believed in a God of order, and therefore, a universe of order. Contrary to popular belief, scientific developments were not made despite the church, but with its help. Most of the scientists belonged to one church or another. Unlike many civilizations prior, they believed that the study of this world is possible because it is orderly and predictable. You can’t make any progress in science in a completely chaotic universe. While the Christians did believe in miracles, they would only turn to use that as an explanation after all natural explanations had been exhausted.
(3) Describe the main ideas we associate with the Enlightenment.
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that took place in the 18th century. The primary driver of this movement was a return to emphasis of reason. Most of the prominent figures in the Enlightenment believed that it was human reason that should be the main way to know what to believe. They were often skeptical of inherited traditions and accepting of human nature and desires.
Other Notes
Francis Bacon ideology
There was too much abstract philosophy study and not enough investigation and observation.
“Knowledge is power” in the sense that for something to be considered knowledge, it must be useful and give us power over our environment. Turning nature from something that threatens us to something that benefits us.
Science and theology must be separated.
There is more scientific progress in real life problem solving than there is in universities.
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